Language and Structure in Julius Caesar

Genre of the play

William Shakespeare’s plays can be classified into three categories:

• Comedy

• Tragedy

• History

However, some plays are more difficult to categorise than others as they blur the boundaries between these different genres.

Julius Caesar is an example of this. It is a history play because it is based on actual historical events. However, it also has the conventions of a tragedy, so it fits this category as well. It is, therefore, often referred to as a historical tragedy. Other Shakespeare plays that fit this dual classification include Macbeth and Antony and Cleopatra (which features the characters of Mark Antony and Octavius Caesar from Julius Caesar).

Let’s have a look at how Julius Caesar has typical features of a Shakespearean history play:

Conventions of a Shakespearean History Play	Use of Conventions in Julius Caesar
Shakespeare examines the causes of conflict in real-life historical events.	In the play, Shakespeare shows the tension among the senators about the possibility of the Roman Republic becoming a monarchy or empire with one overall ruler.
He explores the personal motivations of the key people involved in the events.	Brutus wants what is best for the republic. Cassius is motivated by envy and greed for power.
He looks at how the civil unrest is brought under control.	The civil war is won by Octavius and Antony, ultimately leading to Octavius becoming the first Roman Emperor, Augustus. Brutus and Cassius die.
It is only loosely based on historical facts – Shakespeare adds fiction to events.	Shakespeare condenses the real-life events, which occurred over several years, into a shorter timeframe in the play. In the play, Caesar is assassinated in the Capitol; in real life, it was in the Theatre of Pompey.

Now let’s look at how the play qualifies as a tragedy:

Conventions of a Shakespearean Tragedy	Use of Conventions in Julius Caesar
There is an order-disorder-order structure	At the start, there is order: Pompey has been defeated, and Caesar is a stable leader. This is thrown into disorder with the assassination plot, the murder itself, and the ensuing civil war. Order is restored at the end when Octavius becomes the leader.
There is a tragic hero	Many critics would say Brutus is the tragic hero. His idealism (looking for a perfect system) is both a virtue and a tragic flaw. In the quest for an ideal government, he makes several errors, including his trust in Cassius.
There is a tragic villain	Cassius can be seen as the tragic villain. He leads Brutus astray with cunning manipulation, and is motivated by his personal greed and hatred.
Supernatural elements	The ghost of Caesar appears before Brutus. There is a soothsayer who warns Caesar of the Ides of March. Similarly, Caesar’s wife, Calphurnia, has a strong intuition about his impending murder.
Violence and deaths	On stage, we see the brutal stabbing of Caesar, as well as the deaths of Cassius and Brutus. Portia, Brutus’s wife, is also a victim of the tragic events.
Catharsis (release of emotions) at the end	There is high emotion with the anger at Cassius’s plot and the desperation for Antony and Octavius to be victorious. These emotions are released with the establishment of Octavius as the leader at the end. There is also sadness for the misguided Brutus.

Structure

Julius Caesar follows a five-act structure:

Act One: Introduction to the main characters and the setting in Rome.

There are signs of discontent among the Roman elite, specifically from Cassius, who manipulates Brutus to turn against Caesar. The soothsayer’s warning, “Beware the Ides of March,” foreshadows Caesar’s impending doom. 

Act Two and Three: The Rising Action and Climax.

The conspiracy against Caesar takes shape. Caesar’s assassination is the climax, and Antony’s famous speech further intensifies the situation. He turns the public of Rome against Brutus and the conspirators, sparking civil unrest and setting the stage for a civil war.

Act Four: The Falling Action

Antony and Octavius prepare for war against Brutus and Cassius. Brutus and Cassius argue, but then reconcile and ready themselves for battle.

Act Five: The Resolution

There is a tragic battle at Philippi. Both Cassius and Brutus die, and the battle ends in victory for Antony and Octavius. Antony names Brutus as “the noblest Roman of them all.” Despite the bloody battle and conflicts, the concept of honour remains a central theme.

Language

Rhetorical Devices

Antony’s funeral speech uses persuasive rhetoric to turn the citizens of Rome against Caesar’s conspirators.

His speech begins with a metaphor in the famous line:

“Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.” 

He uses rhetorical questions:

“Did this in Caesar seem ambitious?”

He uses anaphora (a repeated refrain) to show his disdain for Brutus’s argument that they killed Caesar for the sake of Rome. Sarcastically, he repeats throughout the speech:

“But Brutus says he was ambitious; And Brutus is an honourable man”

Initially, it seems like Antony is praising Brutus. However, with each repetition, it becomes increasingly apparent that he is challenging Brutus’s credibility.

Dramatic irony

Dramatic irony occurs when the audience knows more than the characters do.

• The use of dramatic irony is evident in the plot to kill Caesar, as the audience is aware that Caesar will be assassinated, while he remains oblivious. Tension builds as Caesar ignores warnings of his death, including his wife Calphurnia’s premonitions, which heightens the audience’s frustration.

• Brutus does not realise Antony’s intention to turn the crowd against him at Caesar’s funeral. The audience, aware of Antony’s intentions, feels tension in anticipating the consequences.

Verse and Prose

Shakespeare uses both prose and verse in the play.

• Prose is a form of language similar to everyday speech. It has no specific structure or rhythmic pattern.

• Verse in Shakespeare often follows a specific rhythm and meter known as iambic pentameter, which consists of five pairs of unstressed and stressed beats in each line (usually resulting in ten syllables). Shakespeare’s use of iambic pentameter is prevalent in his plays and sonnets. It is a common structure used in English poetry and can be found in both rhymed and unrhymed forms.

When the characters speak in verse, this can indicate:

• The high status of the characters
• The formality or seriousness of the situation
• Romance

Shakespeare uses prose to show that either:

• The character speaking has a lower status
• The characters are speaking informally or humorously

Most of the play is written in verse. This reflects the events involving people of high status talking about significant matters that would affect the future of the Roman Republic.

There are some moments where characters speak in prose. For example:

• At the beginning, the commoners who are in the streets to celebrate Caesar’s victory speak in prose. The Tribunes tell them off in verse.

• In private, Casca tells Brutus about Caesar refusing to wear the crown in front of the crowd.

• Brutus’s speech to the commoners at Caesar’s funeral is also delivered in prose, reflecting his attempt to appear humble and relatable.